Identification of the sources of finance available to a medium size Assignment

Identification of the sources of finance available to a medium size business, - Assignment Example The legal implication comes in handy in that if the business does not go into overdraft, then the bank cannot charge interest. Overdrafts are repayable on demand, this could have a negative effect to the business in case of bankruptcy or where the business has no liquid cash to repay, posing a financial risk as well. A commitment fee is usually charged by the bank where a business wishes to increase its overdraft facility. No tax is charged. We can compare the opportunity cost of opting for overdrafts as compared to short term loans, with short term loans, the business does not have to worry about the bank withdrawing an overdraft before it is in a position to repay because there is an element of security which is not available with normal overdrafts. Trade credit is an interest free short term loan. If a business has a good relationship with its suppliers, this could be a viable choice of finance. Raw materials may be purchased on credit with payment terms varying from between 30 to 90 days. In a period where the general price of goods and services is escalating, purchasing through credit keeps costs down. How a business operates its credit facility has a significant influence on credit scoring affecting its future accessibility to credit. Also, a company’s credit rating could be worsened if the business delays in payments therefore making it difficult to obtain additional trade credits bringing in a tangible financial risk. Trade credits are not subjected to tax. If a business wishes to borrow from a bank for only a short period of time to purchase items such as fixed assets, then that would be termed as taking a short term loan. The amount is given in full at the beginning of the period and is paid in instalments. Term loans have legal implications that can be sited by the fact that the loans carry a facility letter setting out the terms of the

To be or not to be. Using Linux instead of Windows Essay

To be or not to be. Using Linux instead of Windows - Essay Example Is Linux really the best choice for desktops, just like the way it is considered for servers? Can it replace or become an alternative to existing operating systems, especially Microsoft Windows for desktops? No doubt, Linux is still struggling to catch up with Microsoft on desktop computers, but at the same time, it has made significant progress in many areas which are still not readily apparent to many consumers. This paper aims to highlight those areas of Linux, namely benefits of being open source, low purchase cost, robust security, software availability and customizable features. The conclusion of this paper supports the fact that Linux has redeeming qualities to become a choice for desktops and predicts its domination in the desktop world. Linux is an operating system – a program that allows users to interact with all the software and hardware resources of the computer, either through command-line interface, where the users type text commands and the computer responds according to those commands, or through graphical user interface (GUI) in which the users can interact with the computer through a graphical interface with pictures and buttons by using the mouse and keyboard. Besides Linux, there are many other operating systems available in the market; few examples are Windows, IBM OS/2, MS-DOS, UNIX, Mac OS X and OpenSolaris. Almost every operating system can be classified as either Desktop or Server edition. Desktop version consists of those operating systems, such as Windows 2000 or Windows 98, which are only capable of running on normal desktop computers, while latter are designed specifically for servers – large computers with highly sophisticated hardware, such as Novell’s NetWare, Window NT and UNIX. So why Linux? Linux is â€Å"open source† – means that all the underlying code of operating system can be modified, used and distributed by anyone

The Social Cost of Carbon Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5250 words

The Social Cost of Carbon - Essay Example The adverse impacts may be in the form of poorer health outcomes, loss or harm to biodiversity, economic weakening of agricultural, timber, water and energy industries, as well as the loss or destruction of coastal resources. The important feature of these detrimental effects is that they are not borne by the immediate parties in any economic transactions. In economists’ terminology they are ‘externalities’; however, they are experienced by the wider society (Putnam, 2007). In choosing the carbon reduction policy to be implemented, the social cost of carbon can be used at least in theory, as an indicator of whether society would be benefited by using the policy. Thus, if a social cost of carbon at  £70 per tonne is accepted, a carbon reduction policy that reduces emissions at more than  £70 per tonne would be rejected. However, the â€Å"social cost of carbon has been criticised as being too uncertain to provide the basis for policy decision making† (Putnam, 2007, p.28). It has been argued that it is not possible to monetarily assess climate change damage such as loss of ecosystems and large-scale population displacement, because of the difficulty in establishing the upper limit of the costs. Hence, for policy decision making, a single financial evaluation of the social cost of carbon should be avoided. The Government and Committee on Climate Change is also required to include the factor of sustainable development, because an exclusive emphasis on carbon reduction may result in adverse outcomes in other environmental areas such as biodiversity. For example, it is essential to consider certain substitutions and transactions between â€Å"the need to reduce carbon emissions, the impacts on local wildlife, and the financial costs of minimising such impacts† (Putnam, 2007, p.28), when planning key renewable energy projects such as wind farms and tidal barrages. A fairly recent and

The East Asian Model of Development and Financial Crisis Essay Example for Free

The East Asian Model of Development and Financial Crisis Essay The East Asian miracle is often quoted as an example of how countries can register fast paced growth through focused and concentrated growth in industry and trade. However, in the last few decades, countries that have grown at varying paces and this rate of growth has varied in different environments. The East Asian tigers, ruled by authoritarian regimes, grew at an astounding pace in the decades of the sixties and the seventies. While authoritarianism worked well in this region, dictatorial regimes in Uganda, Bhutan and Myanmar failed. Przeworski and Limongi (1997) show how political freedom enables the optimal use of resources in any country. Interest groups exert pressure on governments and ensure widespread and sustainable growth. Free market based economies work on the principles of rule of law, property rights and enforcement of contracts. This way growth is robust and is not vulnerable to shocks that are inherent in a globalizing world. The East Asian countries, including Japan, went through a financial crisis as foreign investment flows got reversed, currencies were devalued and balance of payments suffered. This crisis was the result of a long history of economic inefficiencies helped by regimes that were often corrupt, interventionist and politically entrenched. It is against this backdrop that people all over the world started questioning the entire east Asian model, which till the early nineties was seen as an efficient system that had enabled a large number of poor countries develop their industry, trade and economy at a pace rarely seen before. Economic development and liberty There are those who argue that democracy is inefficient and is prone to market failures. Governments are seen as enforcement agencies that ensure redistribution of wealth. Lipset (1959) and Sen (1999) have argued against this proposition and shown that it is indeed democracy that fosters economic growth. Those who argue in favour of authoritarian rules have one extreme example of Singapore that they often quote. Lee Kuan Yew the first Prime Minister of Singapore who believed in authoritarianism authored the Lee paradigm, and under him Singapore became a prosperous nation. Researchers have examined the Lee paradigm to check whether authoritarian regimes have fostered greater growth and development when compared to democratic structures. According to Haizheng and Zhenhui (2007) who have worked on this model to check whether authoritarian regimes have fostered greater growth and development than have democratic structures, there are indeed a few examples of countries like Singapore and South Korea that have shown impressive growth under authoritarian regimes. However the correlation between authoritarianism and economic growth is not robust. There are counter examples like Botswana and India where economic growth has been spectacular within democratic frameworks. Sen (1982) goes further to argue that there are enough examples of countries where authoritarianism or the lack of a democratic structure has actually resulted in economic decline. In countries like Niger, Ethiopia, Sudan and even in China, famine and hunger took hundreds of lives and an authoritarian regime could do little to avert the crises. He states further that democratic institutions such as a free press, a vigilant opposition and regular elections ensure that the democratic process keeps the political economy alert. Lobbies do exist, interest groups try to steer the political economy in certain ways, but the interplay of all stakeholders ensures that democracies throw up issues that are of common concern. Howlett and Ramesh (2003) point out that it is often seen that individuals, groups, classes, and states participate the democratic policy process. Their own interests often guide them. However when these come together, it is the institutional mechanism of a democratic framework that ensures a stable outcome. Government and the Economy Governments and political policies are important influences on businesses worldwide, impacting on the competitive context in which business strategies are implemented. Over the last couple of decades, economic reforms leading to privatization and liberalization have further increased this influence. Donaldson Preston (1995) have pointed out how as the impact of business on societies grows, companies experience varying and increasing demands from diverse stakeholders. Politics is the stage on which these diverse stakeholder demands are ultimately met with. Success requires active participation from both businesses and governments. Further as Tushman Anderson (1997) show, modernization and strategic dependence on new technologies has become central to markets in many economies. These new technologies create regulatory challenges that again require political responses that can affect the viability and profitability of the business. Governments thus influence the ability of businesses to improve profits and therefore the ability to exert political influence in technologically dynamic sectors becomes an important capability. Again, globalization has greatly improved the chances of conducting business internationally, allowing companies to widen their portfolios and enter into global markets. The significance of governmental policy therefore again assumes great significance in matters of export import regulations, duties etc. (Ohmae, 1999). Democracy and Government What is the better option A strong centralized power controlling all resources versus private players given the freedom to decide what and where to invest? There are a number of people who keep insisting that a dictatorship is what the country requires. Arguing against them is the lot that states categorically that a democratic system that guarantees liberty is what is essential for growth. Economic growth implies the efficient use of available and scarce resources. The argument between those who support a centralized planned and tightly controlled allocation of resources versus those who believe in the market to efficiently allocate resources goes on. Apart from the political concerns, economists have been looking at this issue for a while now. Ronald Coase (1960), a Nobel prize winner in Economics had argued in his famous transaction cost analysis, that there is a cost that society bears when the government allocates resources and this leads to inefficiency. Governments have no way of knowing who will use resources most efficiently and in most cases allocate resources to inefficient players. Other economist have points to the tragedy of the commons, where the absence of clearly defined property rights leads to free rider problems and over exploitation of resources. The question therefore is whether markets should be left free to correct themselves or to have a stringent regulatory mechanism in place that ensures consumer welfare through controlling dominance and capture. In the current scenario then, what exactly is the nature of relationship between governments and businesses? Though the balance has tilted towards the private sector and private enterprise by and large, the state still holds considerable powers over business activities. Doris Fuchs (2005) talks about the different aspects of power that businesses hold in the global economy. Fuchs explains that those who argue stating that there is no business influence on politics should note that the opposite is the case, in countries like those in East Asia. Development of any economy depends on the growth in income, employment and opportunity. These are a direct outcome of investments made, technologies used and markets created. In all these, it is important to look at the roles that the state and the private players play. Governments foster an investment climate that encourages capital flows, incentivise production, builds capacities and enables markets to develop. Cooperation between private business and the government paves way for the efficient markets to develop where demand is created and supply increased to maintain equilibrium. Several examples of such collaborative ventures can be seen especially in large infrastructure developments see across the world. The first example of such a collaboration was seen at the twentieth century when in the US an entire railroad industry developed. Private public partnerships have also been widely used to tackle rising pollution levels and the need for tighter environment protection. The first wave of environment protection saw governments work with a slew of stringent laws and regulations. Then came the non governmental organisations that lobbied against polluters. NGOs, government and civil society work as levers for promoting a greening of industry. Lehmann (2006) uses the Danish example of the Green Network, to demonstrate how new forms of co-operation between public authorities and private companies are arrived at. The conclusion is that through dialogue, reflexivity and the establishment of an enabling environment, public–private partnerships can become useful vehicles in societies move towards the use of environmentally sustainable technologies. Conclusion Democracy, as a form of governance that guarantees political freedom, has long been viewed with suspicion in certain quarters. Various economists have explained how a strong property rights regime within free markets is the best way of guaranteeing efficient resource sharing. Any political regime that interferes with the market then abides by its own rules that could very well be steered in inefficient ways through coercive power that some constituents possess. However, the free market argument has its critics, who ague that some people tend to capture all resources and this results in exploitation of a large group of underprivileged people. Governments, in such cases, are unable to implement rules and the market fails. Gunnar Myrdal had coined a term called â€Å"soft states† in his book â€Å"The Asian Drama†, where the argument was that some states because of their governance structures, history and culture are unable to implement tough action and therefore cannot regulate markets effectively. This has been shown to be big reason for authoritarian states to move fast by way of economic growth, as they were able to take stern steps that are required to ensure growth and development. However the correlation between authoritarianism and economic growth is not robust. Democratic institutions such as a free press, a vigilant opposition and regular elections ensure that the democratic process keeps the political economy alert. In terms of issues that relate to public resources, especially the environment, the tragedy of the commons is a prevalent phenomenon and as Hardin (1968) explains, it is the lack of private incentives and state inefficiencies that play havoc with public goods. The environmental decay and abuse that is seen in authoritarian regimes that have no space for protest and counter opinion ensures that there is no political interest in protecting the environment. In democracies however, lobbies do exist, interest groups try to steer the political economy in certain ways, but the interplay of all stakeholders ensures that democracies throw up issues that are of common concern. It is often seen that individuals, groups, classes, and states participate in the democratic policy process. Their own interests often guide them. However when these come together, in a rule of law mechanism that guarantees equality in the eyes of the law, it is the institutional mechanism of a democratic framework that ensures a stable outcome. The East Asian economies developed without such a framework and therefore, as the economy grew, it also became fragile. The effect of a shock like that seen during the financial crisis therefore affected all segments of the society and the economy. That is why, it is important that economies today are built on robust fundamentals of an enabling market mechanism and not on tight governmental control and intervention.

Impact Of Dlf Ipl On Two Economies Tourism Essay

Impact Of Dlf Ipl On Two Economies Tourism Essay There exists no such event whose effects can be annulled in any way. No event takes place in an isolated way, defeating the very purpose of the event. The event has direct or indirect influence on every aspect of our lives and these include social, cultural, economic, environmental or political aspects (Allen et al., 2002). The payback from an event is enormous. A lot of constructive and encouraging associations are formed during the event. This is one of the most important reasons for the attractiveness and fame of an event (Bowdin et al., 2006). It is inevitable to measure the various impacts of an event, thus ensuring the proper monitoring, control and evaluation. Recent literatures have revealed an interesting fact, that the methods used to measure the event, and also the aspects measured differ significantly (Wood, E.H., 2005). Primarily, constructive social, cultural as well as economic impacts are normally recognized to be the probable advantage to event hosts (Veres et al., 2 008). It is obvious for the hosts to have an inclination towards giving more importance to the economic impact, highly influenced by the tourism research. Economic advantages of an event are very vital to the host. Hence it is very imperative to have good frameworks for the measurement of this aspect. However, an accepted fact is that economic benefits are not the only advantage which comes with an event. Various elusive benefits have to also be measured to know how successful an event has been (Bowdin et al., 2006); Jones (2001) suggests that even if the former unconstructive effects are included having a limelight merely on straight expenses payback will still give an unfinished image. However, it is also to keep in mind that events can sometimes have negative and unplanned consequences and these penalties can lead to the event having both media and public attention for the wrong reasons (Allen et al., 2002). This has to be kept in mind during the planning and execution of the eve nt. The power of media in deciding how an event is shown is formidable. The media can have a strong social and cultural  impact  upon society. Thus the media can influence how the event is professed, and also how it is shown to remote audiences (Getz, D., 2007). Events can basically have two kinds of outcomes i.e., positive and negative impact on the host communities and stakeholders (Allen et al., 2002). Event failures can be very devastating, bringing in negative publicity, humiliation and expensive lawsuits (Bowdin et al., 2006). Hence a lot of importance is placed on the financial impacts of an event. Factors leading to this are that both the employers and government need to meet budget goals, deadlines, and also be ready with explanations for the expenditures and an important factor is that financial impacts can be easily measured (Allen et al., 2002). Getz, D. (2002) suggests fours main costs and benefits that have to be evaluated: tangible benefits, tangible costs, intang ible benefits and intangible costs. Also the methods of measurement or assessment used vary with the impacts to be measured or assessed. To calculate the overall impact of the event, social and cultural benefits cannot be left out. However, rather than following a statistical approach calculating them may require a narrative approach (Bowdin et al., 2006). The impact of an event is sometimes calculated well before the event actually takes place. This is because in many scenarios, after the event policy focus shifts elsewhere (Jones, 2001). Long-term effects of an event are very crucial. No matter the event being attended or not by the local community, the effects will be felt by them (Ritchie and Smith, 1991). The host society can be provided with a policy for putting forward their knowledge, hosting probable shareholders and endorsing new business opening by the event (Bowdin et al., 2006). These events can create possible employment opportunities during the construction phase (All en et al., 2002). One of the most important impacts of a mega-event is on the tourism industry which would bring in lot of visitors to a particular place which has never been a tour destination before (Getz, D., 2006). This paper focuses on the various impacts of DLF IPL on the South African community and how it has contributed towards the Indian economy. It also discusses the various advantages and disadvantages that are involved with DLF IPL. OVERVIEW OF DLF IPL The DLF IPL is organised by the well established event management organisation IMG WORLD, LONDON. The Indian Premier League (IPL) has been produced by the joint venture between IMG and the Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI). For the IPL IMG explored the most favourable fair as well as mercantile model and a huge amount of $724m were raised by carrying out the notable authorization sale procedure (IMG World, 2009). In India, IPL is one of the most economically victorious sports idea ever initiated. The IPL is played according to the most up-to-date cricket layout which is Twenty20; this decreases match playing time to three hours, and thus makes it ideal for major time television as well as live in-stadia spectators. The television production and distribution rights, franchise rights, event and venue management and sponsorship sales for the IPL is handled by the IMG. The shifting of the venue to South Africa in the year 2009 was taken care by IMG. IMPACT ON INDIAN ECONOMY DUE TO IPL SWITCH TO SOUTH AFRICA All the businesses in India right from the road trader to the publicity organizations holding millions of dollars of shares are faced financial crisis because of the shift of IPL from India to South Africa due to security reasons as the IPL dates conflicted with the general election dates in India. The market analysts sensed that this sudden move from India to South Africa has grinded down from the Indian marker an ample amount, adding up to the already existing despair of global financial slump. Last year the IPL had contributed up to 1 billion rupees to the Indian economy, but due to the shift to South Africa which involved a lot of additional expenditure the BCCI did not incur a lot of income. The media houses in India did undergo a major income loss, which was estimated to be from 500 million to 700 million rupees. The estimated loss when it came to the gate receipts was 500 million rupees. The hospitality industry as well as tourism industry had a major impact. But there was an advantage tagged to this shift as well which was that IPL is now seen by people as a tournament with international value. OVERALL IMPACT OF DLF IPL ON THE SOUTH AFRICAN COMMUNITY According to Getz (2007) all events have a direct social and cultural impact on their participants, and sometime on their wider host communities. But, some events leave a legacy of greater awareness and participation in sporting and cultural activities (Bowdin et al., 2006). The Indian Premier League (IPL) has contributed a lot towards the education in South Africa (The Hindustan Times, 2009). According to Getz (2007) the financial profits are gained when the particular event can pull in extra income for the community benefits which is either in the form of endowments or funding. As stated by Fakir Hassen (2009) Lalit Modi, who is the man behind IPL proclaimed a scholarship of over eight million and this was one of the best programme towards community development in South Africa by a sports oriented organisation. This money given towards education benefits (Torkildsen, G., 2005) has also helped in the initiation of Help Educate and Teach (HEAT) programme that was commenced at the Ale xander Sinton High School in the suburb of Athlone. The schools and individual learners will be benefited by this programme. Lalit Modi stated that any attempt towards development and strengthening of individuals as well as nation always remains as a soul of superior education. He also stated that India has emerged as a successful nation because of its strong education basis: This emphasis on education is now paying off many times over as India has grown into an economic powerhouse far better equipped to lift people out of poverty(The Hindustan Times, 2009). The investment of DLF IPL in the in the education of South African community targets towards a prospect return (Getz, D., 2007) and cautious analyses of this is vital. According to one of the strategies set out by Bowdin et al. (2006) i.e., Local area strategy; the DLF IPL created a carnival atmosphere by celebrating cultures of the South African community which in turn led to the enhancement of community unity. According to the report by the Hindustan Times 32 schools have benefited from the HEAT programme. For the learners who attended the DLF IPL matches, with the cooperation of the producers of the television five learners were recognized at individual matches and their faces were displayed on the monitors in the stadium. Each one of these received 15,000 rands as part of their school fee. Cricket South Africa (CSA) chief Gerald Majola stated that the IPL model could be used to make this game a global sport event and this in turn would help other set-ups take a great leap as well. The benefits gained economically were considerable. During this period of economic crisis the IPL has built a strong base for the South Africas tourist industry (Bowdin et al., 2006) and also proved to set out to the world that it is capable of hosting the FIFA 2010. According to Allen et al.(2002) other than the expenses of the event the people who came for the event put in their money on tour, lodgings, and other services in South Africa and there was a increase in hotel room bookings by 40,000 which otherwise is normally very low during winter season in South Africa. The South Africa government is majorly focusing on tourism sector as an upcoming industry that is competent of increasing the economic benefits and employment opportunities (Bowdin et al., 2006). In addition to the tourism pro duced throughout this event, IPL has also involved a lot of media reporting (Allen et al., 2002) and due to this the South African community profile has gained importance (Getz, D., 2006). The IPL has not only boosted the confidence of the youthful South African cricket players but has also provided with an opportunity to take part in a sporting event that is recognized worldwide (The Business Standard, 2009). It is still sometimes argued by event boosters that mega events generate benefit from the legacy of infrastructure and venues, but this assertion can easily be wrong (Getz, D., 2007), because the basic purpose of IPL is very fruitful considering the fact that it brings the cricket stars worldwide who are against each other on nationalized defences into single squad (The Business Standard, 2009). This event has created a long lasting bond between the two countries (India and South Africa). Hosting the IPL in South Africa has not only made IPL a global brand, but has also brough t billions of income to the South African economy. SWOT ANALYSIS OF DLF IPL Based on the details in Indian Premier League (2009) the following have been identified to be the: STRENGTHS OF IPL: The Indian Premier League (IPL) follows the Twenty20 format of cricket. This is the shortest version of the game, thereby finishing within two and half hours of game play. Unlike the One day format, which takes a full day to complete, or the Test format spanning five days of play, the Twenty20 is fast-paced and electrifying. Thus pulling in a large crowd to watch the game even on weekdays. Also the IPL has employed people who can really market goods well. These highly trained economists maximize the revenue with their very clean and methodological approaches. This makes IPL an integrated sport. Further each team has players from different countries. This causes a wide range of support of different communities to a single team, thus making cricket globally accepted. The supremacy of the BCCI in the control of ICC has a lot of benefits to DLF IPL. The financial backing from BCCI and also the power to manipulate the dates of international cricket matches favours the IPL. WEAKNESS OF IPL The pace at which people lead their lives now, they hardly have time to lavishly spend on watching a sport. Since IPL has satisfied this need of theirs, people are happier to watch the twenty20 format. Lots of talk has been going on about the status of other formats of the game and how to revive it. But the truth is, IPL has damaged the image of One day cricket and Test cricket. Further, a lot of money is involved in the IPL. Failure of a team can hurt the managements financial position a lot. Teams also spend a lot on advertisement, cost of players, brand promotion. Hence sponsorship is hard to find for their overpriced rates. A team doing well will fare well. If not tough times lie ahead. OPPORTUNITIES OF IPL IPL has a budding fan following. Since it is striking and very attractive, a lot of potential sponsors and advertisers are willing to invest a lot in this event. The IPL has eight leagues. Each being responsible for itself in every sense. Every franchise has to market its team well and get a large fan following behind their team. This in the long term will generate a lot of revenue for them. There is a nice opening for teams to sell their brand name in forms of shirts, accessories and other memorabilia. Another important and vital opportunity for IPL is to target the teenagers. The older people will naturally have a stronger inclination to the traditional form of cricket. But the youth today will like this thrilling and breathtaking format. Each franchise will continue to pay the same fees till 2017-2018. Hence the teams need not worry about inflation, which has been a drawback in India for the past few years. THREATS OF IPL If the top players in world cricket cant be brought into IPL teams, it will lose its popularity. Further, the domestic season in Australia runs concurrent with IPL. If the Australian players are not allowed to choose IPL instead of their local teams, a lot of fan following will be lost.

Transforming Rehabilitation: Effect on Offender Management

Transforming Rehabilitation: Effect on Offender Management Transforming Rehabilitation will improve the Effectiveness, Governance and Legitimacy of Offender Management in England and Wales Introduction The aim of this paper is to examine Transforming Rehabilitation in terms of its effectiveness, governance and legitimacy. Starting out with an explanation of legitimacy and introducing The Carter Report 2003 and its recommendations. Moving on to explain some of the needs for a change in practice, and an insight of some of the views from probation staff themselves and perceptions of negatively withering away of staff. Importantly, there are some explanation of theory, especially regarding desistance and more recently the emergence of The Good Lives Model, as a continuation of The Risk Needs Responsivity model. The explanation regarding some of the outcomes expected by TR, and the need for modernisation. As part of TR a Fee for Service and Payment by Results are explained, with the use of charts for the reader. Managing risk is an important part of the proposed changes and a change in direction to promoting desistance. Overarching drivers legitimacy and the need to implement change The term governance is a very old one, but it has been revitalized recently, and has become perhaps one of the most appealing concepts in social science, meaning a new notion reformed, associated with government and public administration.   Regarding TR, this may be perceived by many detractors as a case of â€Å"new wine in old bottles† Chui and Nellis (2003). Governance has been widely used in local governance. In the case of TR, the popularity of governance may have something to do with distrust about the government.   That said, The Social Exclusion Unit posited that, recommendations from The Carter Report (2003) stated that despite recent changes that have brought the management of the services closer together, no front-line organisation ultimately owns the target for reducing re-offending. This can lead to gaps in the system, for example, there is no joint national resettlement strategy and interventions in prison are often not followed up in the community, (Social E xclusion Unit 2002). This in turn leads to reconsideration of the traditional theories of public administration. Self-confidence of traditional public administration has been destroyed and it has faced an ‘identity crisis.’ Public administration, which has been supposed to be a powerful tool for solving social problems, falls down to a serious social problem itself. As a result, many theories have been proposed as alternatives to the traditional public, Ostrom (1986). The case for an innovative approach to offender management is quite clear cut, as the previous attempts have been deemed costly. It is stated that in the UK more than  £3bn is spent every year on prisons, and almost  £1bn annually on delivering sentences in the community, MOJ (2013). Despite this, overall reoffending rates have barely changed over the last decade and the same faces are seemingly reappearing back through the system. Almost half of all offenders released from custody in 2010 reoffended within a year. Over 6000 offenders sentenced to short custodial sentences of less than 12 months in the year to June 2012 had previously received more than 10 community sentences, yet gaps in the sentencing framework mean very little can be done to prevent them from returning to crime once they are released back into the community MOJ, (2013). In 2014, under the Transforming Rehabilitation (TR) changes MOJ, (2013), and Probation Trusts were split into the National Probation Service (NPS) which became part of the civil service and 21 Community Rehabilitation Companies (CRCs) which were subject to marketisation and a commercial tendering process, as seen in Fig.1. with their Contract Package Areas (CPA).   After the bidding process was completed in 2014, eleven CRCs were owned by private sector companies leading a partnership with third sector organisations, three were joint ventures between the private, public, and third sector, three were a public, private, and third sector partnership; two were owned by the private sector exclusively; and another two were equity joint ventures between the private and third sectors (Deering and Feilzer 2015, p.13). Fig.1. CPA Map showing the 21 Contract Package Areas On 29 October 2014, the MoJ announced its preferred bidders to run the Community Rehabilitation Companies in these areas. Here are the successful bidders and as seen in Fig.2. Sodexo and NACRO have been successful in six CRCsInterserve who are leading partnerships in five CRCsMTCNovo, a Joint Venture between MTC and a number of other organisations,  have won London and Thames Valley.Working Links are the preferred bidders in three CRCs.The Reducing Reoffending Partnership   is a Joint Venture between Ingeus, St Giles Trust and CRI, who will run the two large Midlands CRCs , being Staffs & West Midlands and Derby, Leicester, Nottinghamshire & Rutland). Webster (2017) Fig.2. Showing winning bidders in the Contract Package Areas Clearly the changes imposed because of TR have had the potentia to affect all three types of legitimacy, but perhaps particularly more so upon self- legitimacy. (Robinson, Burke and Millings , 2016) Around 50% of all crime is committed by individuals who have already known by criminal justice system (CJS). The cost to the taxpayer of reoffending is estimated to be  £9.5 to  £13 billion per year. There has been little positive change in reconviction rates and almost half of those released from prison go on to reoffend within 12 months. The need to reduce reoffending to reduce both the number of victims and the costs to the taxpayer. To achieve this, there is a need to adopt a tough but intelligent criminal justice system that punishes people properly when they break the law, but also supports them so they don’t commit crime in the future. (MOJ, 2015) Others are more guarded in the way they anticipate the future of TR, and Canton (2011) in particular, stresses the importance of what the probation service continues to represent and its values, such as belief in the possibility of change and social inclusion. McNeill (2011) characterises probation as a justice agency, with key roles in advocating for probationers in relation to access to social goods that have been denied and mediating between law breakers, their communities and social institutions. This ideal view contrasts with the reality of delivering community sanctions in a tough penal climate dominated by public protection, which is one of Liz Truss’s key priorities, with a reduction of violence to staff currently running at 40% and a spotlight on education as the 3rd priority, especially English and Maths, MOJ (2017). McNeill also argues that it is critical for the long-term legitimacy and credibility of probation. At this point in time, it may be uncertain as to whether a doom-ridden or a phoenix-rising vision of the probation future is more likely to come about, although some truths may be gathered from empirical evidence gathered from probation officers and trainees.   There seems to be a great deal of optimism on one side of the camp for TR, as to how the recent changes will be implemented, but on the other side, a great deal of pessimism regarding the implementation of TR. NAPO (National Association of Probation Officers) and UNISON, (Public Sector Trade Union), collectively had made their feelings known. They both stated that a large majority of the 17,000 probation staff refer to TR as a â€Å"catalogue of errors† in terms of staff assignment, a mismatch between workload, staffing levels and staff location, compromised risk management, reduced IT capability with NOMS, nDelius case management system, although C-NOMIS already had inherent problems as seen in fig.3. Increased bureaucracy and a huge rise in the use of temporary and sessional staff were deemed to be the main problems. High performing Probation Trusts have been replaced with poorly performing replacements. (NAPO and UNISON, 2017). The probation staff were quick to point out that they were not to blame for the errors. Regarding the use of temporary and sessional staff will aid the ability to be dynamic and cope with peaks and troughs. The use of the voluntary sector with CRC’s may also be a sticking point with regular probation staff, although as stated by John Podmore, professor of applied social sciences, â€Å"NOMS was never an organisation that its employees proudly declared they belonged to. Creating a National Prison and Probation Service that people aspire to join and importantly to stay in and develop skills and careers is a crucial step forward. But it must be much more than just name change†, Podmore (2017). Lizz Truss, current Minister of Justice as of April 2017, was keen to promote the newly created Her Majesty’s Prison and Probation Service with the following   bold statement, â€Å"The creation of HM Prison and Probation Service (HMPPS), will build a world-leading, specialist agency, dedicated to professionalising the prison and probation workforce, backed by an additional  £100m a year and 2,500 additional prison officers, with a  £1.3 bn budget to build new prisons, whilst at the same time closing old and inefficient prisons†, Truss (2017).    Scepticism may be in the forefronts of most of the staff affected by the new era dawning, as previous ministers, namely Mr Gove and Mr Grayling had somewhat seemed to have   failed in their primary objectives for a reformed and efficient joined up agency. Fig.3.Assesemnt of C-NOMIS National Audit Office 2009 The Need for Change Accounts of the origins of probation and its realisation in organisational form give different emphases to its role in social justice, redemption, and control or separation of ‘suspect populations’ from respectable society (Vanstone, 2004). The history of the service has frequently been described in terms of ‘phases’, one notable example suggesting that it moved from the missionary phase through welfare and diversion from custody phases towards more recent orientations towards punishment in the community and then public protection (Chui and Nellis, 2003). The reality of practice is less straightforward, although changes in social and political norms certainly mean that the problem of offending, and, inevitably, law-breakers becomes enclosed by practitioners in different terms. Redeemable, treatable or unmanageable, safe or risky, motivated or unmotivated, (Canton, 2011: 29). With current reference to offender management stated that ,   rather than probation supervisionas the dominant way of describing the work of the probation service is a case in point. To what extent does this represent a real shift towards a technocratic and business-like approach? Or does the term seek to mask the essential continuity in both human interactions between probation officers and probationers, and the normalising function benevolent or otherwise of probation? These questions are certainly not settled. Yet, in the face of the Transforming Rehabilitationreforms (MoJ, 2013a: MoJ, 2013b), they become highly significant when we consider the practices and values that might transfer out of the probation service into the new Community Rehabilitation Companies (CRCs) ,as staff move from one to the other. They are also relevant in anticipating what motivations and values might guide this new version of the NPS, tightly focused on work with higher risk offenders and in the courts to assist sentencing and enforcement procedures. From a critical perspective, Cavadino et.al.(2013: 134) fear the ‘withering away’ of supervision of probationers and even question the Transforming Rehabilitation, or transforming the occupational identity of probation workers? Theory (Desistance) As far back as the 1800’s, the French social scientist, Quetelet (1833), argued that the penchant for crime diminishes with age because of what was described as the â€Å"enfeeblement of physical vitality†. Given that one of the aims of the Criminal Justice System is to reduce crime, then does Transforming Rehabilitation support this? Desistance is one of the mechanisms that can aid TR, however desistance is a complicated process of many twist and turns on that journey to desist from offending. Transforming Rehabilitation is now well under way and reports on its success will be under much scrutiny in the coming months ahead. Desistance from crime, is described as the long-term abstinence from criminal behaviour among those for whom offending had become a pattern of behaviour, is something of a mystery. Producing or encouraging desistance is the implicit focus of much criminal justice policy, practice and research. It is one of the key outcomes that justice interventions are designed to achieve and much research treats reducing or ending offending as a key measure of effectiveness, McNeill et. al. (2012). One of the few near eventualities in criminal justice is that for many individuals, offending behaviour peaks in their teenage years, and then starts to decline. This pattern is represented in what is known as the age crime curve. The age crime curve is of a symmetrical bell shaped curve that shows the prevalence’s of offending, that peaks between the ages of 15 – 19 and declines in the 20’s, Farrington (1986). Studies of desistance illuminate the processes of change associated with the age-crime curve (Kazemian, 2007). If we are to understand desistance from crime, particularly how and why crime tails off over time, we need both testable theories of this process and empirical evidence. There is a significant evidence base on the causes of crime but desistance research suggests that the factors behind the onset of offending are often different than the factors behind its abandonment. Understanding desistance also has more subtle impacts on criminal justice debates. The most current version of The Good Lives Model, incorporates desistance theory and also elements of positive psychology Laws and Ward (2011), is strength based regarding the premise that humans are by nature, practical decision makers, who invariably adapt themselves to their environment. In relation to desistance, Maruna (2001), described what he coined the Pygmalion effect, stated that the elevated expectations of others will lead to a greater self-belief, aiding the process of ‘knifing off’, or cutting off bonds with their criminal past. In order to achieve these goals, a great deal of emphasis on social capital or opportunities and human capital or motivations and capacities, McNeill (2006) are necessary elements to aid primary and secondary desistance. With respect to the GLM as to its effectiveness, research into this model is rather ambivalent and rather scarce to date to be able to measure the evidence. Offender Management Outcomes Kirton and Guillame (2015), argue that staff feel that TR has deprofessionalized the service and that stress levels are high, due to higher workloads, job insecurity, less autonomy and reduced opportunities for training and progression. Many respondents in their study were considering leaving the service. Moreover, responses to the Ministry of Justice’s (2016) Civil Service People Surveyfor the NPS suggest that only a minority of NPS staff feel that they are involved in decisions that affect their work (38%); that poor performance is dealt with effectively in their team (35%); that there are learning and development opportunities (42%); and that there are career opportunities in the NPS (33%). The NOMS Offender Management Model is the product of bringing together the policy requirements and the messages from research and other evidence, and defining what these together mean for the principles of how NOMS will go about managing individual offenders. It is the bridge between the broad brush strokes of policy, and the finer detail of practice. It forms part of NOMS’ commissioning framework, setting out the broad specification for the approach it expects those managing individual offenders to deploy, and acting as the basis for the development of Standards and performance measures, NOMS (2006). Post Carter report, this was simply a reply from this by concentrating on key themes like modernisation in the form of New Public Management (NPM), trying to control the increasing population in the prison system and by trying to find solutions to the lack of communication between services under the umbrella of probation supervision and prison and probation. Payment by Results Fig.4. Key Components of Fee For Service Mechanism   The MOJ sets out the mechanisms of FFS: Fee For Service (FFS) is payment for mandated activities that deliver through the gate services, (TTG), the sentence of the court and licence conditions to time and quality. A recognition that volume risk, that is the risk that providers are required to deliver services for a larger or smaller number of offenders than expected has been raised as a serious concern, and therefore the risk needs to be shared between Government and providers. The FFS component will therefore be a fixed price for services with a volume related adjustment where changes to volume levels fall outside of an appropriately determined tolerance range, as seen in FIig.4. above. This volume tolerance range recognises that the likely reason for a significantincrease or decrease in volume is most likely to be due to external factors not within the control of a provider. Payment by Results (PbR) seems to be an ideal mechanism in TR, particularly in the current economic climate and under a government which is so keen, to reduce public expenditure, but also to reduce the scale of the public sector, and innovative because possible failings may allow to transfer the costs to private companies involved.   Fox and Albertson (2011) stated, there are other potential benefits to PbR. The sheer possibility of making profits is expected to bring new providers into the field. This, combined with a financial incentive to achieve outcomes, is then expected to increase competition, sweep away unnecessary bureaucracy, and increase the desire to innovate. leading to a better understanding of what is effective, possibly leading to lower unit costs thus allowing for an element of profit to be paid. This is expected to facilitate the involvement of smaller providers who may not have the financial resources to sustain a service over several years while waiting for their results to be evident and their payments to be triggered. In all, if implemented properly then a huge success for private companies involved in TR. Fig.5.Illustration of payment curve incorporating stretch targets. Managing Risk One also must bear in mind that the priority given to different purposes is likely to vary over time. Countries can change their penal philosophies, with different purposes and emphases being put on the role of probation within criminal justice. Kemshall (2010) and others, for example, have argued that, in the last decade or so, more emphasis has been placed on public protection and minimizing risk in England and Wales, with a linked priority on enforcement of breach. The government’s new consultation document, ‘Breaking the cycle: effective punishment, rehabilitation and sentencing of offenders’ may see a swing back towards rehabilitation and promoting desistance, whilst promoting community sentences for less serious offences and without compromising public protection (Ministry of Justice 2010). Fig.6.Prochaska and DiClemente’s Cycle of Change Model Conclusion Lessons from the Thatcher government (1979–1990) taught us that her government targeted the large public sector organisations involved in the provision of utilities whom they presented as being inefficient, over-bureaucratic and unresponsive because they were not subjected to the ‘discipline’ of the market, such as the prison service. However, there was also the realisation that selling those public entities, who were profitable by virtue of their monopoly position, afforded a short-term opportunity to raise revenues, lower taxation and reduce public sector borrowing, now seen again in a Conservative government, Annison et.al. (2014). Do we state the obvious or is it a case of Deja vou? In this respect, it is worth remembering that earlier initiatives introduced by the previous Labour government to address this issue – such as the NOMS and Custody Plus3 were subsequently abandoned on the grounds of the costs involved. At the heart of the government’s TR rhetoric is the idea of innovation, however as in some cases a phone call every 6 weeks from a CRC to a low risk offender may not be seen this way. TR has been communicated from the top down as an opportunity for providers of probation services to liberate themselves from central control and develop creative, effective solutions to the problem of reoffending (Ministry of Justice 2013a; 2013b).   The question of perceptual legitimacy, internal, external, and self- legitimacy has become a core site of debate for probation. Bradford and Quinton’s (2014) conditions for self-legitimacy, namely levels of attachment to the new organizations, the internalization of organizational goals, a sense of being supported by the organization, and a belief that probation staff in both the CRCs and the NPS remain legitimate holders of authority. As David Cameron once remarked whilst Prime Minister, ‘finding diamonds in the rough and letting them shine’. With effective rehabilitation methods in place and joined up working principles, maybe optimistically, we just might see many shining lights, and hail the implementation of Transforming Rehabilitation. References Annison, J., Burke, L. and Senior, P. (2014), ‘Transforming Rehabilitation: Another Example of English ‘Exceptionalism’ or a Blueprint for the Rest of Europe?’ European Journal of Probation, 6: 6–23. Bradford, B. and Quinton, P. (2014) ’Self-legitimacy, police culture and support for democratic policing in an English constabulary’, British Journal of Criminology, 54, 1023–46. Canton, R. (2011) Probation: Working with offenders Abingdon: Routledge Cavadino, M., Dignan, J. and Mair, G. (2013) The penal system: An introduction London: Sage. Chui, W.H. and Nellis, M. (2003) ‘Creating the National Probation Service – new wine, old bottles? In W.H. Chui, and M. Nellis (eds) Moving probation forward: Evidence, arguments and practice Harlow: Pearson. Deering, J. and Feilzer, M.Y. (2015) Privatizing Probation: Is Transforming Rehabilitation the End of the Probation Ideal? Bristol: Policy Press. Farrington, D.P (1986) ‘Age and crime’ in Tonry, M. and Morris, N. (Eds) Crime and justice: An annual review of research Vol 7, pp189-250. Fox, C. and Albertson, K. (2011) Payment by results and social impact bonds in the criminal justice sector: New challenges for the concept of evidence-based policy?, Criminology & Criminal Justice, 11 (5) 395-413. Kemshall, H. (2010). ‘The role of risk, needs and strengths assessment in improving supervision’, in F. McNeill, P. Raynor and C. Trotter (eds.) Offender supervision: new directions in theory, research and practice. Abingdon: Willan. Kirton, G., and Guillaume, C., (2015). Employment Relations and Working Conditions in Probation after Transforming Rehabilitation. Available at: https//www.napo.org.uk/advice-and -resource(Accessed 24 April 2017). Looman, J., & Abracen, J. (2013). The risk need responsivity model of offender rehabilitation: Is there really a need for a paradigm shift?  International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy, 8(3-4), 30-36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0100980 McNeill, F. (2011) ‘Probation, Credibility and Justice’ in Probation Journal Vol 58(1): 9-22 McNeill, F., Farrall, S., Lightowler, C., and Maruna, S. (2012) How and why people stop offending: discovering desistance. Other. Institute for Research and Innovation in Social Services. Maruna, S. (2001). Making good: How ex-convicts reform and rebuild their lives. Washington D.C.: American Psychological Association. Ministry of Justice (2010). Breaking the cycle: effective punishment, rehabilitation and sentencing of offenders.   London: Ministry of Justice. Ministry of Justice (2013a) Transforming Rehabilitation: A Strategy for Reform London: MoJ. Ministry of Justice (2013b) Transforming Rehabilitation: Target operating model, rehabilitation programme London: MoJ. Ministry of Justice (2016) Civil Service People Survey 2016:   The National Probation Service.https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/ file/573656/nps-people-survery-results-2016.pdf (accessed 26 April 2016). National Audit Office (2002), Reducing Prisoner Reoffending. Ostrom, E. (1986). An Agenda for the Study of Institutions. Public Choice. 48(1): 3-25. Podmore, J., (2017). http://thejusticegap.com/2017/02/farewell-noms-need-name-change/. Website [accessed 24 April 2017]. Social Exclusion Unit (2002). Reducing Re-offending by ex -Prisoners. Vanstone, M. (2004) Supervising offenders in the community: A history of probation theory and practice Aldershot: Ashgate. Bibliography Fig.1. CPA Map showing the 21 Contract Package Areas Fig2. System Governance Fig.3.Assesemnt of C-NOMIS National Audit Office 2009 Fig.4. Key Components of Fee for Service Mechanism Fig.5.Illustration of payment curve incorporating stretch targets. Fig.6.Prochaska and DiClemente’s Cycle of Change Model

Frederick Douglas Essay -- Frederick Douglas report

Paper on Frederick Douglass In the 1800's, slavery was a predominant issue in the United States, one that most Americans in the South dealt with daily. The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass reveals much about American history during the time of slavery as well as expounds arguments for the abolition of slavery. As a historical document, it conveys information about the slave family, work, the master-slave relationship, and the treatment and living conditions of slaves. As an antislavery tract, it argues against commonly held beliefs about slavery's benefits and its morality, making strong points for getting rid of slavery. In The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, Douglass reveals, through the story he tells "the core of the meaning of slavery, both for individuals and for the nation."(2) Slave families were often torn apart by the master separating them. Douglass states that often mothers were taken away before the baby reached one year old. He believes this was probably done to break the bond of affection between the mother and the child. In Douglass' own case, he only remembered seeing his mother four or five times, during the night, when she had to walk twelve miles each time just to be able to see her own son for a little while. When she died, Douglass wasn't allowed to go to her burial. He was just told she was dead afterwards. Douglass didn't feel much hearing the news because he barely knew her. Douglass also wrote of how members of the slave family were always at risk of being separated. They could be sold at the master's whim, or when the master died, the slaves would be gathered with the rest of the property to be sold to different masters. Frederick Douglass tells how after his master died, th... ...ample, when he tells how people who could be chosen to work on the Great House Farm would sing songs filled with great anguish. When he heard these songs, he got his "first glimmering conception of the dehumanization character of slavery."(51) The second main idea was how knowledge equals power. His growing understanding about how education would be "the path from slavery to freedom."(64) He tells how the more his master, Mr. Auld, argued his education, the more clearly he knew its supreme importance. His third main point was that freedom is essential for every human being. He showed all of his renders a glimpse of this when he "imagines himself on one of [the ships] ‘gallant decks,' speaks to us and the ships alternating voices of anguish and triumph, pouring out his ‘soul's complaint,' and converting it into an unforgettable image of the meaning of freedom."(23)